ARRIVE Essential - Blinding
DISCLAIMER: Information on this and related pages is based on or copied directly from the ARRIVE guidelines 2019 (please see the original guidelines for more information, references and examples that are not included on these pages):
ARRIVE Essential 10 - Item 5 - Blinding
Describe who was aware of the group allocation at the different stages of the experiment (during the allocation, the conduct of the experiment, the outcome assessment, and the data analysis).
Researchers often expect a particular outcome, and can unintentionally influence the experiment or interpret the data in such a way as to support their preferred hypothesis. Blinding is a strategy used to minimise these subjective biases.
Whilst there is primary evidence of the impact of blinding in the clinical literature that directly compares blinded vs unblinded assessment of outcomes, there is limited empirical evidence in animal research. There are, however, compelling data from systematic reviews showing that non-blinded outcome assessment leads to the treatment effects being overestimated, and the lack of bias-reducing measures such as randomisation and blinding can contribute to as much as 30-45% inflation of effect sizes.
Ideally, investigators should be unaware of the treatment(s) animals have received or will be receiving, from the start of the experiment until the data have been analysed. If this is not possible for all the stages of an experiment (see below), it should always be possible to conduct at least some of the stages blind. This has implications for the organisation of the experiment and may require help from additional personnel, for example a surgeon to perform interventions, a technician to code the treatment syringes for each animal, or a colleague to code the treatment groups for the analysis. Online resources are available to facilitate allocation concealment and blinding.
Blinding during different stages of an experiment
During allocation: Allocation concealment refers to concealing the treatment to be allocated to each individual animal from those assigning the animals to groups, until the time of assignment. Together with randomisation, allocation concealment helps minimise selection bias, which can introduce systematic differences between treatment groups.
During the conduct of the experiment: Where possible, animal care staff and those who administer treatments should be unaware of allocation groups to ensure that all animals in the experiment are handled, monitored and treated in the same way. Treating different groups differently based on the treatment they have received could alter animal behaviour and physiology, and produce confounds. Welfare or safety reasons may prevent blinding of animal care staff but in most cases, blinding is possible. For example, if hazardous microorganisms are used, control animals can be considered as dangerous as infected animals. If a welfare issue would only be tolerated for a short time in treated but not control animals, a harm- benefit analysis is needed to decide whether blinding should be used.
During the outcome assessment: The person collecting experimental measurements or conducting assessments should not know which treatment each sample/animal received, and which samples/animals are grouped together. Blinding is especially important during outcome assessment, particularly if there is a subjective element (e.g. when assessing behavioural changes or reading histological slides). Randomising the order of examination can also reduce bias. If the person assessing the outcome cannot be blinded to the group allocation (e.g. obvious phenotypic or behavioural differences between groups) some, but not all, of the sources of bias could be mitigated by sending data for analysis to a third party, who has no vested interest in the experiment and does not know whether a treatment is expected to improve or worsen the outcome.
During the data analysis: The person analysing the data should know which data are grouped together to enable group comparisons, but should not be aware of which treatment each group received. This type of blinding is often neglected, but is important as the analyst makes many semi-subjective decisions such as applying data transformation to outcome measures, choosing methods for handling missing data and handling outliers. How these decisions will be made should also be decided a priori. Data can be coded prior to analysis so that the treatment group cannot be identified before analysis is completed.
Specify whether blinding was used or not for each step of the experimental process. If blinding was not possible during a specific stage of the experiment, provide the reason why.
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